Table of contents:

Chapter
1 Hindu Law Age-old yet Age-less ............................................... ..... 1
Most ancient, yet strikingly modern............................................. 4
Supremacy of law and independence of judiciary....................... 5
Laws of Dharmasastras supreme,
paramount, but yet dynamic........................................................ 6
Purposive approach.......................................................................... 7
Duty oriented socialist approach.................................................... 8
2 Nature and Sources of Hindu Law ........................................... ... 13
Sources of Hindu law
Vedas—source of Hindu law—if.................................................. 16
Smriti—source of Hindu law—if.................................................. 19
Manu—compilation of tradition.................................................. 21
Divine origin of Hindu law
Kali-Varjya doctrine....................................................................... 26
Origin of caste system.................................................................... 28
Breach of Rule.................................................................................. 31
Smriti—compilation of customs................................................... 33
Nature of ancient scriptural Hindu law...................................... 34
Aryans—enforcement of usages................................................... 36
Vedas and Smritis—the popular origin...................................... 37
Smritis and Nibandhas—evidence of customs........................... 38
Precedence—superseding commentaries ................................. 41
3 Was Hindu Law a ‘Law in Force’ within
the Meaning of the Constitution?.............................................. ....... 43
What is law?
Meaning and import of law........................................................... 44
Definition of law............................................................................. 45
Hindu law as law in force.............................................................. 46
Sudra whether competent to be a sannyasi................................ 48
Interpretation of the Smritis.......................................................... 50
Hindu law if law in force
Ban on bigamy among Hindus..................................................... 53
Personal law as law in force.......................................................... 54
Pre-Constitutional Hindu law...................................................... 57
Personal laws of the Hindus whether law in force................... 58
Polygamy for male and monogamy for female........................ 59
Remarriage of Hindu widow—bar to......................................... 76
Custom or usage—law in force if................................................. 77
Personal law or custom have the force of law........................... 80
Hindu law is law in force............................................................... 81
Hindu law and Mahomedan law if law in force
Adoption of one law to another................................................... 86
Legislation by referential incorporation.................................... 87
Cancellation of bail in bailable offences..................................... 89
Personal laws of the Hindus and
Mahomedans if law in force.................................................... 90
Personal laws of the Hindus whether laws in force.................. 91
One word more................................................................................ 92
4 Impact of Constitution on Pre-Constitution Hindu Law ....... ........ 94
Fundamental rights
Personal liberty—scope of............................................................. 95
Fundamental rights......................................................................... 96
Equality as freedom of religion.................................................... 97
Equality before the law.................................................................. 97
Discrimination
Classification by legislation.......................................................... 99
Classification on the basis of sex................................................ 101
Discrimination in favour of women.......................................... 103
Interpretation of Article 15(3)..................................................... 104
Article 15(3)—Purposive construction....................................... 106
Gender biasness............................................................................. 107
State includes judiciary—whether.............................................. 111
4 Impact of Constitution on
Pre-Constitution Hindu Law—continued
Sex as a ground of discrimination—personal law................... 113
Polygamy for men but monogamy for women....................... 115
Validity of the law........................................................................ 117
Validity of classification—test.................................................... 119
Discrimination on the ground of sex
Sons excluding daughters from inheritance............................. 124
Change of gotra on the ground of marriage............................ 127
Female heirs acquiring limited estates only............................ 129
Females being denied the right to adopt.................................. 129
Purposes of adoption ................................................................... 130
Conclusion...................................................................................... 133
5 Modern Hindu Law and
the Constitution—Role of Religion ........................................... . 135
Article 44 of the Constitution...................................................... 135
The Caste Disabilities Removal Act 1850
Marriage.......................................................................................... 141
Guardianship.................................................................................. 145 Adoption ........................................................................................... 146........ Maintenance 150
Hindu Law Acts of 1955-56
The Hindu Marriage Act 1955..................................................... 166
The Hindu Succession Act 1956................................................... 169
The Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act 1956.................... 175
The Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act 1956................... 176 Adoption ........................................................................................... 176
Maintenance............................................................................. 178
6 Hindu Law and the Constitution ................................................ . 180
Origin of the word ‘Hindu’.......................................................... 180 Hindu Dharma and its history................................................................. 181
Hindu Dharma
Hindu Dharma—not a religion in the Western sense............ 182
Gandhiji on the openness in Hindu Dharma............................ 184
Swami Vivekananda..................................................................... 184
In Hindu Dharma, God is omnipresent..................................... 185
Seers of God in every faith.......................................................... 186
Practical aspect of Hindu Dharma.............................................. 187 Hindu Dharma—judicially defined........................................................ 187
Presence of God in nature............................................................ 190
6 Hindu Law and the Constitution—continued
Hindu Dharma is closely connected with Hindu law............................................. 191
Dharma
Dharma and what it stands for.................................................... 192
Distinction between Dharma and law....................................... 193
7 The Source of Hindu Law in the Background
of the Nature of Hindu Law .. 201
Source of Hindu Law
Multiple sources............................................................................ 201 Hindu law flows from religion............................................................... 202
Raja Rammohan and Swami Vivekananda on Vedas............. 203
Truth and scriptures...................................................................... 205
Smriti
Smriti and Shruti........................................................................... 206
Nibandhas....................................................................................... 207
How to interpret conflicts in Smritis......................................... 208 Proactive role by commentators............................................................. 209 Vedas and Smritis—comparative importance...................................... 210
8 Principles of Justice, Equity and Good
Conscience as Sources of Hindu Law ................................... .. 213
‘Nyaya’ in Hindu law................................................................... 213 Principles of justice, equity and good conscience................................ 214
No unfettered discretion.............................................................. 219
9 The Principles of Secularism in Hindu Law
and Its Impact on our Constitution ........................................ .. 221
Dharma
What is Dharma?........................................................................... 221
Dharma and natural law.............................................................. 222
Constitutional law
Natural and constitutional law................................................... 223
Concept of justice in Hindu law................................................. 224
Dignity of the individual............................................................. 226
Secularism
Tolerant and secular principles in Hindu law.......................... 227
Same secular tradition in Jainism and Buddhism.................... 228
Interaction between Hindu and Islamic culture...................... 229
Ashoka’s edicts............................................................................... 230
Ashoka’s wheel.............................................................................. 231
Secular thoughts in Hindu religion........................................... 232
Sudras and Muslims can become Hindu priests...................... 234
Secularism and Indian Constitution.......................................... 236
10 Mimamsa Interpretation in Hindu Jurisprudence
and its Relevance in Constitutional Law .. 237
Mimamsa interpretation
Mimamsa and its application...................................................... 237
How Mimamsa rules could be applied by court?.................... 238 Justice Katju and Mimamsa...................................................................... 239 Mimamsa and the Constitution............................................................... 241 Mimamsa and secularism......................................................................... 242
Judicial pronouncements and Mimamsa
Chief Justice John Edge and Mimamsa...................................... 244
Dr. P.V. Kane and Mimamsa....................................................... 246
Justice Srikrishna and Mimamsa................................................ 247
Conclusion .......................................................................................... 248
11 Diverse Personal Laws in India—Hindu Code Bill
and the Importance of Uniform Civil Code ............................. .. 249
Diverse personal laws
During British Raj.......................................................................... 249
Various schools and systems of Hindu law.............................. 251
Different Islamic laws................................................................... 252
Codification of Hindu law
The reason why the British codified Hindu law...................... 252
Cautious approach in codification of Hindu laws................... 253
Preparation of Hindu Code Bill.................................................. 254
12 Uniform Civil Code (Article 44) and Personal Laws .. 258
Personal laws and Article 44
Personal laws and the relevant entries in the
Seventh Schedule of the Constitution..................................... 258 Delicate balance in the Constitution—Article 44................................. 260 The role of the Supreme Court and Article 44.............................................. 260
Uniform Civil Code
Origin of the concept of Uniform Civil Code.......................... 261 Is the codification of Hindu Law a step
towards Uniform Civil Code?................................................. 264 Divided opinion over enforcing
Uniform Civil Code................................................................... 266 Constituent Assembly Debates and
Uniform Civil Code................................................................... 267
Divergence of view about Uniform Civil Code...................... 270
Constitutional values in a pluralistic
society and enforcing Uniform Civil Code........................... 272
13 Attempts to Modify Muslim Personal Law
and the Judgments of the Supreme Court ............................. .. 274
Modification of Muslim personal law
Right to divorce of Muslim
women and maintenance.......................................................... 276
Amendment of Code of Criminal Procedure........................... 277
Judicial interpretation and its effect........................................... 278
Further amendment to the Code................................................ 278 Amended section considered by
the Supreme Court..................................................................... 279
Further judgment of Supreme Court......................................... 280
Muslim personal law
Human right read into Muslim personal law.......................... 281 Shah Bano and later judgments on personal law................................. 282 Shah Bano decision was defended........................................................... 284 Resentment over Shah Bano decision..................................................... 284
14 Article 44 and Judgments after
Shah Bano’s Decision .................................................................. 290
Effect of Shah Bano’s decision
Judgments after Shah Bano.......................................................... 290
The decision in Sarla Mudgal...................................................... 290
Subsequent judgments after Sarla Mudgal............................... 292
Maintenance to Muslim divorced women
Danial Latifi’s decision................................................................. 293
Further judgments on Article 44................................................. 294
15 Is ‘Personal Law’ a ‘Law in Force’ within the
Meaning of Article 13 of the Constitution........................................ 297
Laws in force
Definitions in our Constitution.................................................. 297
Custom or usage having the force of law................................. 299
Purpose of Article 13..................................................................... 299
Fundamental Rights
Fundamental Rights are not static.............................................. 301
The wide reach of fundamental rights....................................... 302
Wide definition of law in Article 13.......................................... 303
Section 127 of the Code of Criminal Procedure....................... 304
Mr. Seervai’s views....................................................................... 305
16 The Concept of Secularism in the
United States and the Indian Constitution.............................. ........ 307
Amendment in US Constitution
Two clauses of the First Amendment in
US Constitution.......................................................................... 307
Origin of liberty of conscience.................................................... 308
Free exercise................................................................................... 308
Secularism
US Constitution—first to establish a secular State.................. 308
Separation between the church and the State........................... 309
Perfect separation not possible................................................... 309
The position in India..................................................................... 311
Karachi resolution and secularism—
Nehru and Gandhiji................................................................... 314
Our Constitution........................................................................... 315
Ameliorative secularism.............................................................. 317
17 Western Thoughts of Secularism ........ 319
Early thoughts................................................................................ 319
Tolerance in Christianity............................................................. 320
Reformist movement.................................................................... 321
Pursuit for truth............................................................................. 321
Locke, Spinoza and Mill............................................................... 322
18 Secularism as a Principle—Splendid
Symphony of the Universal Soul ............................................. .. 325
Secularism
Meaning of secularism................................................................. 325
Ideal secular society...................................................................... 326
Secular State.................................................................................... 327
Moral value in a secular society................................................. 329
Secularism and its protection under the
Constitution of India................................................................. 330
Seperation between State and religion
No strict separation between State and religion..................... 331
Constitution creates a tolerant society...................................... 332
Our secularism is different from Western
concept of secularism................................................................. 332
Judiciary and secularism
Judiciary explaining secularism................................................. 333
19 Supreme Court’s Judgment on Hindutva,
Hindu State and the Erosion of Secular Values .. 339
The judgments
The factual background................................................................ 339
The Speeches . 340 Election law and the Constitution
Nature of the right to seek election........................................... 342
Corrupt practice and electoral process...................................... 342
Supreme Court and the religion
Principles laid down in Prabhoo................................................ 346
Formulations in Prabhoo............................................................. 346
Errors in Prabhoo.......................................................................... 348
Hindutva
Hindutva, explained by Savarkar............................................... 353
Golwalker’s views on Hindutva................................................. 354
Apart from Prabhoo, no Supreme Court
judgment defined Hindutva..................................................... 355
Further errors in Prabhoo ........................................................... 355
Prabhoo's appeal was dismissed................................................ 360
Manohar Joshi................................................................................ 360
20 Babri Masjid-Ramjanambhumi Dispute—Its Impact
on Secular Constitution and Hindu Values ....... 366
Secular values
The background............................................................................. 366
Diversity and pluralism............................................................... 367
Demolition was against Hindu values...................................... 367
Supreme Court in demolition of Mosque
Critical analysis of the judgment of the
Supreme Court in Ismail Faruqui........................................... 368
Recital of facts in the judgment................................................... 370
Majority judgments’ reliance on judgments
which are not applicable........................................................... 373
Errors in Ismail Faruqui............................................................... 377
The purpose of the Act and the flaws
in the majority judgment.................................................... 378
Minority view is correct ............................................................. 379
Error in the majority judgment.................................................. 380
Minority view is correct............................................................... 383
20 Babri Masjid-Ramjanambhumi Dispute—Its Impact
on Secular Constitution and Hindu Values—continued
Secularism principles laid down in S.R. Bommai
were not followed in the majority judgment........................ 384
Errors in the majority judgments............................................... 384
Demolition of Babri Masjid and
fundamental rights
The act is examined....................................................................... 386
Act is violative of Arts. 25 and 26............................................... 387
The Act to efface secularism........................................................ 388
Majority judgment and secularism
The majority judgment may lead to
non-secular activities ................................................................ 389
The majority judgment not following Bommai view............ 390
Constitutional morality............................................................... 391
Offering of namaz in a mosque is an
essential religious practice....................................................... 394
21 Temple Entry, Untouchables and the Constitution ........ 398
Casteism
Temple entry.................................................................................. 398
Fight against casteism.................................................................. 400
Gandhiji on casteism..................................................................... 402
Principle of neutrality in education........................................... 403
Judicial system of British India................................................... 403
Dr. Ambedkar on casteism.......................................................... 407
Supreme Court on casteism......................................................... 407
Untouchability
Acts to remove untouchability................................................... 409
Definition of untouchability....................................................... 410
Articles abolishing untouchability............................................ 410
Fundamental rights and directive principles........................... 411
Article 17......................................................................................... 413
Temple entry and laws for abolishing
“untouchability”......................................................................... 416
Elimination of caste inequities
Ameliorative secularism.............................................................. 417
Supreme Courts decision in Shirur Mutt.................................. 418
Religion defined............................................................................ 419
Shirur Mutt’s principles watered down..................................... 420
Appendices
Appendix
1 The Constitution of India ............................................................. 429
2 The Government of India Act, 1935 ........................................... 436
3 The Government of India Act, 1915 ............................................ 437
4 The Caste Disabilities Removal Act, 1850 ................................. 438
5 The Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act, 1856 .. 439
6 The Hindu Married Women’s Right to
Separate Residence and Maintenance Act, 1946 ..................... 440
7 The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 .. 441
8 The Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1946 ..................... 442
9 The Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act, 1956 .. 444